JavaScript

Java is a popular programming language, created in 1995.
It is owned by Oracle, and more than 3 billion devices run Java.
It is used for:

Mobile applications (specially Android apps)
Desktop applications
Web applications
Web servers and application servers
Games
Database connection
And much, much more!

Java works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc.)
It is one of the most popular programming language in the world
It has a large demand in the current job market
It is easy to learn and simple to use
It is open-source and free
It is secure, fast and powerful
It has a huge community support (tens of millions of developers)
Java is an object oriented language which gives a clear structure to programs and allows code to be reused, lowering development costs
As Java is close to C++ and C#, it makes it easy for programmers to switch to Java or vice versa

Java Syntax

Java Syntax

The curly braces {} marks the beginning and the end of a block of code.

System is a built-in Java class that contains useful members, such as out, which is short for "output". The println() method, short for "print line", is used to print a value to the screen (or a file).

Don't worry too much about System, out and println(). Just know that you need them together to print stuff to the screen.

You should also note that each code statement must end with a semicolon (;).
```
                     
                        public class Main {
                            public static void main(String[] args) {
                              System.out.println("Hello World");
                            }
                          }
                        
```
Print Text

Print Text

1) The Print() Method
There is also a print() method, which is similar to println().
The only difference is that it does not insert a new line at the end of the output

2) Println()
You can add as many println() methods as you want. Note that it will add a new line for each method

Print()
```
                 
                System.out.print("I will print on the same line.");
            
        
```
Println()
```
                 
                System.out.println("Hello World!");
            
        
```
Java Comments

Java Comments

Comments can be used to explain Java code, and to make it more readable. It can also be used to prevent execution when testing alternative code.

Single-line Comments
Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//).
Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by Java (will not be executed).

Java Multi-line Comments
Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.

single linecomment
```
    
        // This is a comment
```
Multi-Line comments
```
    
        /* The code below will print the words Hello World
to the screen, and it is amazing */
```
Java Variables
Java Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

In Java, there are different types of variables, for example:
1. String - stores text, such as "Hello". String values are surrounded by double quotes
2. int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
3. float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99
4. char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by single quotes
5. boolean - stores values with two states: true or false
Final Variables
If you don't want others (or yourself) to overwrite existing values, use the final keyword (this will declare the variable as "final" or "constant", which means unchangeable and read-only)
Declaring (Creating) Variables (Syntax)
```
    
        type variableName = value;
```
Final Variables
```
    final int myNum = 15;
```
Identifiers

Identifiers

All Java variables must be identified with unique names.
These unique names are called identifiers.
Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names (age, sum, totalVolume).

Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create understandable and maintainable code

The general rules for naming variables are:
Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs
Names must begin with a letter
Names should start with a lowercase letter and it cannot contain whitespace
Names can also begin with $ and _ (but we will not use it in this tutorial)
Names are case sensitive ("myVar" and "myvar" are different variables)
Reserved words (like Java keywords, such as int or boolean) cannot be used as names

Java Data Types

Data types are divided into two groups:

1)Primitive data types - includes byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean and char
2)Non-primitive data types - such as String, Arrays and Classes (you will learn more about these in a later chapter)
Non-primitive data types are called reference types because they refer to objects.
The main difference between primitive and non-primitive data types are:
Primitive types are predefined (already defined) in Java. Non-primitive types are created by the programmer and is not defined by Java (except for String).
Non-primitive types can be used to call methods to perform certain operations, while primitive types cannot.
A primitive type has always a value, while non-primitive types can be null.
A primitive type starts with a lowercase letter, while non-primitive types starts with an uppercase letter.
The size of a primitive type depends on the data type, while non-primitive types have all the same size.

1) Primitive Data Types
A primitive data type specifies the size and type of variable values, and it has no additional methods.
There are eight primitive data types in Java:

Data Type	Size	Description
`byte`	1 byte	Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127
`short`	2 bytes	Stores whole numbers from -32,768 to 32,767
`int`	4 bytes	Stores whole numbers from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
`long`	8 bytes	Stores whole numbers from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
`float`	4 bytes	Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 6 to 7 decimal digits
`double`	8 bytes	Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits
`boolean`	1 bit	Stores true or false values
`char`	2 bytes	Stores a single character/letter or ASCII values

Primitive number types are divided into two groups:

A) Integer types stores whole numbers, positive or negative (such as 123 or -456), without decimals. Valid types are byte, short, int and long. Which type you should use, depends on the numeric value.

B) Floating point types represents numbers with a fractional part, containing one or more decimals. There are two types: float and double.

3)Boolean Types:Very often in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values, like:

YES / NO
ON / OFF
TRUE / FALSE
For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can only take the values true or false

4)Characters:
The char data type is used to store a single character. The character must be surrounded by single quotes, like 'A' or 'c'

5)Strings:
The String data type is used to store a sequence of characters (text). String values must be surrounded by double quotes

Premitive number type : Integer type

                                
                                    byte myNum = 100;

                                
                                    short myNum = 5000;

                                
                                    int myNum = 100000;

                                  
                                    long myNum = 15000000000L;

Premitive number type : Floating Point Types

                                  
                                    float myNum = 5.75f;

                                  
                                    double d1 = 12E4d;

Boolean Types

                        
                            boolean isJavaFun = true;

Characters

                        
                            char myGrade = 'B';

Strings

                        
                            String greeting = "Hello World";

Java Type Casting

Type casting is when you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type.
In Java, there are two types of casting:
Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type size byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double

Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte

Widening Casting

                            
                                int myInt = 9;
                                double myDouble = myInt; // Automatic casting: int to double

Narrowing Casting

                            
                                double myDouble = 9.78d;
    int myInt = (int) myDouble; // Manual casting: double to int

Java Operators

Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

Java divides the operators into the following groups:
1) Arithmetic operators
2) Assignment operators
3) Comparison operators
4) Logical operators
5) Bitwise operators

1)Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.

Operator	Name	Description	Example
+	Addition	Adds together two values	x + y
-	Subtraction	Subtracts one value from another	x - y
*	Multiplication	Multiplies two values	x * y
/	Division	Divides one value by another	x / y
%	Modulus	Returns the division remainder	x % y
++	Increment	Increases the value of a variable by 1	++x
--	Decrement	Decreases the value of a variable by 1	--x

2) Java Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

Operator	Example	Same As
=	x = 5	x = 5
+=	x += 3	x = x + 3
-=	x -= 3	x = x - 3
*=	x *= 3	x = x * 3
/=	x /= 3	x = x / 3
%=	x %= 3	x = x % 3
&=	x &= 3	x = x & 3
\|=	x \|= 3	x = x \| 3
^=	x ^= 3	x = x ^ 3
>>=	x >>= 3	x = x >> 3
<<=	x <<= 3	x = x << 3

3) Java Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values (or variables). This is important in programming, because it helps us to find answers and make decisions.

The return value of a comparison is either true or false.

Operator	Name	Example
==	Equal to	x == y
!=	Not equal	x != y
>	Greater than	x > y
<	Less than	x < y
>=	Greater than or equal to	x >= y
<=	Less than or equal to	x <= y

4)Java Logical Operators
You can also test for true or false values with logical operators.

Operator	Name	Description	Example
&&	Logical and	Returns true if both statements are true	x < 5 && x < 10
\|\|	Logical or	Returns true if one of the statements is true	x < 5 \|\| x < 4
!	Logical not	Reverse the result, returns false if the result is true	!(x < 5 && x < 10)

Java Strings

Strings are used for storing text.

A String variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double quotes

String declare

    
        String greeting = "Hello";

String Length

    
        String txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
System.out.println("The length of the txt string is: " + txt.length());

Finding a Character in a String

    
        String txt = "Please locate where 'locate' occurs!";
        System.out.println(txt.indexOf("locate")); // Outputs 7

String Concatenation

                
System.out.println("Doe" + " " + "John");

                
                    System.out.println("Doe" + " " +.concat("John"));

Java Special Characters

Escape character	Result	Description
\'	'	Single quote
\"	"	Double quote
\\	\	Backslash

Code	Result
\n	New Line
\r	Carriage Return
\t	Tab
\b	Backspace
\f	Form Feed

Java Math

                                    
                                        Math.max(5, 10);

                                
                                    Math.min(5, 10);

                                    
                                        Math.sqrt(64);

                                    
                                        Math.abs(-4.7);

                                    
                                        Math.random();

Java Conditions and If Statements

Java has the following conditional statements:

1) Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true
2) Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false
3) Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false
4) Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed

Switch:
This is how it works:
The switch expression is evaluated once. The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case. If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed. The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this chapter

                                        
                                            if (condition) {
                                                // block of code to be executed if the condition is true
                                              }

                                    
                                        if (condition) {
                                            // block of code to be executed if the condition is true
                                          } else {
                                            // block of code to be executed if the condition is false
                                          }

                                        
                                            if (condition1) {
                                                // block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
                                              } else if (condition2) {
                                                // block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is true
                                              } else {
                                                // block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is false
                                              }

                                        
                                            variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue :  expressionFalse;

                                        
                                            switch(expression) {
                                                case x:
                                                  // code block
                                                  break;
                                                case y:
                                                  // code block
                                                  break;
                                                default:
                                                  // code block
                                              }

Loops

Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.
Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code more readable.

1) Java While Loop
The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true

2) The Do/While Loop
The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block once, before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the condition is true.

3) Java For Loop
When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use the for loop instead of a while loop

                                        
                                            while (condition) {
                                                // code block to be executed
                                              }

                                    
                                        do {
                                            // code block to be executed
                                          }
                                          while (condition);

                                        
                                            for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
                                                

                                              }

                                        
                                            for (type variableName : arrayName) {
                                                // code block to be executed
                                              }

Java Break

Java Break

You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this tutorial. It was used to "jump out" of a switch statement.

The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.
```
                    
                        break;
                    
                    
```

Java Continue

The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and continues with the next iteration in the loop.

                    
                        continue;

Java Arrays

Java Arrays

Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring separate variables for each value.

To declare an array, define the variable type with square brackets
```
    String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
```

Multidimensional Arrays

A multidimensional array is an array of arrays.
Multidimensional arrays are useful when you want to store data as a tabular form, like a table with rows and columns.

                    
                        int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

Java Methods

Java Methods

A method is a block of code which only runs when it is called.You can pass data, known as parameters, into a method.
Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known as functions.

Create a Method:
A method must be declared within a class. It is defined with the name of the method, followed by parentheses (). Java provides some pre-defined methods, such as System.out.println(), but you can also create your own methods to perform certain actions

Explained
1) myMethod() is the name of the method
2) static means that the method belongs to the Main class and not an object of the Main class.
3) void means that this method does not have a return value.
```
                    
                        public class Main {
                            static void myMethod() {
                              // code to be executed
                            }
                          }
                    
                    
```
Parameters and Arguments

Parameters and Arguments

Information can be passed to methods as parameter. Parameters act as variables inside the method.

Parameters are specified after the method name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma.

When a parameter is passed to the method, it is called an argument.

Multiple Parameters:
Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the method call must have the same number of arguments as there are parameters, and the arguments must be passed in the same order.
Return Values

Return Values

The void keyword, used in the examples above, indicates that the method should not return a value. If you want the method to return a value, you can use a primitive data type (such as int, char, etc.) instead of void, and use the return keyword inside the method
Method Overloading

Method Overloading

With method overloading, multiple methods can have the same name with different parameters

Note: Multiple methods can have the same name as long as the number and/or type of parameters are different.
```
            
int myMethod(int x)
float myMethod(float x)
double myMethod(double x, double y)
            
        
```
Java Scope

Java Scope

In Java, variables are only accessible inside the region they are created. This is called scope.

1) Method Scope :
Variables declared directly inside a method are available anywhere in the method following the line of code in which they were declared

2) Block Scope :
A block of code refers to all of the code between curly braces {}. Variables declared inside blocks of code are only accessible by the code between the curly braces, which follows the line in which the variable was declared
Java Recursion

Java Recursion

Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This technique provides a way to break complicated problems down into simple problems which are easier to solve.

Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to figure out how it works is to experiment with it.
Halting Condition

Halting Condition

Just as loops can run into the problem of infinite looping, recursive functions can run into the problem of infinite recursion. Infinite recursion is when the function never stops calling itself. Every recursive function should have a halting condition, which is the condition where the function stops calling itself.
Java OOP
Java OOP
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming.
Procedural programming is about writing procedures or methods that perform operations on the data, while object-oriented programming is about creating objects that contain both data and methods.

Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural programming:
1. OOP is faster and easier to execute
2. OOP provides a clear structure for the programs
3. OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and shorter development time
4. OOP helps to keep the Java code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the code easier to maintain, modify and debug
OOP helps to keep the Java code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the code easier to maintain, modify and debug

Java Classes/Objects

Java is an object-oriented programming language.

Everything in Java is associated with classes and objects, along with its attributes and methods. For example: in real life, a car is an object. The car has attributes, such as weight and color, and methods, such as drive and brake.

Create a Class

                    
                      public class Main {
                        
                      }

Create a object

                    
                        Main myObj = new Main();

Static vs. Public

You will often see Java programs that have either static or public attributes and methods.

In the example above, we created a static method, which means that it can be accessed without creating an object of the class, unlike public, which can only be accessed by objects

Static method

                    
                        // Static method
  static void myStaticMethod() {
    
  }

Public method

                        
                            // Public method
  public void myPublicMethod() {
    
  }

Main method

                            
                                // Main method
  public static void main(String[] args) {
   
  }

Java Constructors

Java Constructors

A constructor in Java is a special method that is used to initialize objects. The constructor is called when an object of a class is created. It can be used to set initial values for object attributes

Note that the constructor name must match the class name, and it cannot have a return type (like void).

Also note that the constructor is called when the object is created.

All classes have constructors by default: if you do not create a class constructor yourself, Java creates one for you. However, then you are not able to set initial values for object attributes.

Java Modifiers

The text-align-last property specifies how to align the last line of a text.

We divide modifiers into two groups:
1) Access Modifiers - controls the access level
2) Non-Access Modifiers - do not control access level, but provides other functionality

1) Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either public or default

Modifier	Description
`public`	The class is accessible by any other class
default	The class is only accessible by classes in the same package. This is used when you don't specify a modifier.

For attributes, methods and constructors, you can use the one of the following:

Modifier	Description
`public`	The code is accessible for all classes
`private`	The code is only accessible within the declared class
default	The code is only accessible in the same package. This is used when you don't specify a modifier.
`protected`	The code is accessible in the same package and subclasses

Non-Access Modifiers For classes, you can use either final or abstract

Modifier	Description
`final`	The class cannot be inherited by other classes
`abstract`	The class cannot be used to create objects

For attributes and methods, you can use the one of the following:

Modifier	Description
`final`	Attributes and methods cannot be overridden/modified
`static`	Attributes and methods belongs to the class, rather than an object
`abstract`	Can only be used in an abstract class, and can only be used on methods. The method does not have a body, for example abstract void run();. The body is provided by the subclass (inherited from)
`transient`	Attributes and methods are skipped when serializing the object containing them
`synchronized`	Methods can only be accessed by one thread at a time
`volatile`	The value of an attribute is not cached thread-locally, and is always read from the "main memory"

                                    
                                        final double PI = 3.14;

                                    
                                        static void myStaticMethod() {

                                        }

                                    
                                        public abstract void study(); // abstract method

Encapsulation

Encapsulation

The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is hidden from users. To achieve this, you must:
1) declare class variables/attributes as private
2) provide public get and set methods to access and update the value of a private variable

Why Encapsulation?
1) Better control of class attributes and methods
2) Class attributes can be made read-only (if you only use the get method), or write-only (if you only use the set method)
3_ Flexible: the programmer can change one part of the code without affecting other parts Increased security of data

Get and Set
You learned from the previous chapter that private variables can only be accessed within the same class (an outside class has no access to it). However, it is possible to access them if we provide public get and set methods.
The get method returns the variable value, and the set method sets the value.
```
                            
                                public class Person {
                                    private String name; // private = restricted access
                                  
                                    // Getter
                                    public String getName() {
                                      return name;
                                    }
                                  
                                    // Setter
                                    public void setName(String newName) {
                                      this.name = newName;
                                    }
                                  }
                            
                            
```
Java Packages & API

Java Packages & API

A package in Java is used to group related classes. Think of it as a folder in a file directory. We use packages to avoid name conflicts, and to write a better maintainable code. Packages are divided into two categories:

1) Built-in Packages (packages from the Java API)
2) User-defined Packages (create your own packages)

1) Built-in Packages
The Java API is a library of prewritten classes, that are free to use, included in the Java Development Environment.
The library contains components for managing input, database programming, and much much more. The complete list can be found at Oracles website: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/.
The library is divided into packages and classes. Meaning you can either import a single class (along with its methods and attributes), or a whole package that contain all the classes that belong to the specified package.
```
                            
                                import package.name.Class;   // Import a single class
                                import package.name.*;   // Import the whole package
                            
                            
```

User-defined Packages

To create a package, use the package keyword

                            
                                package mypack;

Java Inheritance

Java Inheritance

In Java, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to another. We group the "inheritance concept" into two categories:

1) subclass (child) - the class that inherits from another class
2) superclass (parent) - the class being inherited from To inherit from a class, use the extends keyword.
```
                    
                        class Vehicle {
                            
                          }
                          class Car extends Vehicle {

                          }
                    
                    
```
Java Polymorphism

Java Polymorphism

Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many classes that are related to each other by inheritance.

Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us inherit attributes and methods from another class. Polymorphism uses those methods to perform different tasks. This allows us to perform a single action in different ways.
Java Inner Classes

Java Inner Classes

In Java, it is also possible to nest classes (a class within a class). The purpose of nested classes is to group classes that belong together, which makes your code more readable and maintainable.

To access the inner class, create an object of the outer class, and then create an object of the inner class
Java Abstraction

Java Abstraction

Abstract Classes and Methods:
Data abstraction is the process of hiding certain details and showing only essential information to the user. Abstraction can be achieved with either abstract classes or interfaces.

The abstract keyword is a non-access modifier, used for classes and methods:
Abstract class: is a restricted class that cannot be used to create objects (to access it, it must be inherited from another class).

Abstract method: can only be used in an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is provided by the subclass (inherited from).
```
                    
                        abstract class Animal {
                            public abstract void animalSound();
                           
                             
                            }
                          }
                    
                    
```
Java Interface
Java Interface
Another way to achieve abstraction in Java, is with interfaces.
An interface is a completely "abstract class" that is used to group related methods with empty bodies

To access the interface methods, the interface must be "implemented" (kinda like inherited) by another class with the implements keyword (instead of extends). The body of the interface method is provided by the "implement" class
Notes on Interfaces:
- Like abstract classes, interfaces cannot be used to create objects
- Interface methods do not have a body - the body is provided by the "implement" class
- On implementation of an interface, you must override all of its methods
- Interface methods are by default abstract and public
- Interface attributes are by default public, static and final
- An interface cannot contain a constructor
Why And When To Use Interfaces?
1) To achieve security - hide certain details and only show the important details of an object (interface).

2) Java does not support "multiple inheritance" (a class can only inherit from one superclass). However, it can be achieved with interfaces, because the class can implement multiple interfaces. Note: To implement multiple interfaces, separate them with a comma
Java Enums

Java Enums

An enum is a special "class" that represents a group of constants (unchangeable variables, like final variables).

To create an enum, use the enum keyword (instead of class or interface), and separate the constants with a comma. Note that they should be in uppercase letters

Enum is short for "enumerations", which means "specifically listed".

Difference between Enums and Classes
An enum can, just like a class, have attributes and methods. The only difference is that enum constants are public, static and final (unchangeable - cannot be overridden).

An enum cannot be used to create objects, and it cannot extend other classes (but it can implement interfaces).

Why And When To Use Enums?
Use enums when you have values that you know aren't going to change, like month days, days, colors, deck of cards, etc.
```
                                
                                    enum Level {
                                        LOW,
                                        MEDIUM,
                                        HIGH
                                      } 
                                
                                
```

Java User Input

The Scanner class is used to get user input, and it is found in the java.util package.

To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of the available methods found in the Scanner class documentation. In our example, we will use the nextLine() method, which is used to read Strings

Input Types

Method	Description
`nextBoolean()`	Reads a `boolean` value from the user
`nextByte()`	Reads a `byte` value from the user
`nextDouble()`	Reads a `double` value from the user
`nextFloat()`	Reads a `float` value from the user
`nextInt()`	Reads a `int` value from the user
`nextLine()`	Reads a `String` value from the user
`nextLong()`	Reads a `long` value from the user
`nextShort()`	Reads a `short` value from the user

                                
                                    import java.util.Scanner;  // Import the Scanner class

                                    class Main {
                                      public static void main(String[] args) {
                                        Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in);  // Create a Scanner object

                                        String userName = myObj.nextLine();  // Read user input
                                    
                                      }
                                    }

Java Date and Time

Java does not have a built-in Date class, but we can import the java.time package to work with the date and time API.

Class	Description
`LocalDate`	Represents a date (year, month, day (yyyy-MM-dd))
`LocalTime`	Represents a time (hour, minute, second and nanoseconds (HH-mm-ss-ns))
`LocalDateTime`	Represents both a date and a time (yyyy-MM-dd-HH-mm-ss-ns)
`DateTimeFormatter`	Formatter for displaying and parsing date-time objects

Display Current Date

                                        
                                            import java.time.LocalDate; // import the LocalDate class

                                            public class Main {
                                              public static void main(String[] args) {
                                                LocalDate myObj = LocalDate.now(); // Create a date object
                                                System.out.println(myObj); // Display the current date
                                              }
                                            }

Java ArrayList

The ArrayList class is a resizable array, which can be found in the java.util package.

The difference between a built-in array and an ArrayList in Java, is that the size of an array cannot be modified (if you want to add or remove elements to/from an array, you have to create a new one). While elements can be added and removed from an ArrayList whenever you want. The syntax is also slightly different

                                            
                                                import java.util.ArrayList; // import the ArrayList class
        
                                                ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>(); // Create an ArrayList object

                                            
                                                cars.add("Volvo");

                                            
                                                cars.get(0);

                                              
                                                cars.set(0, "Opel");

                                              
                                                cars.remove(0);

                                              
                                                cars.clear();

                                              
                                                cars.size();

                                              
                                                for (int i = 0; i < cars.size(); i++) {
                                                    System.out.println(cars.get(i));
                                                  }

                                              
                                                Collections.sort(cars);  // Sort cars

Java LinkedList

ArrayList vs. LinkedList The LinkedList class is a collection which can contain many objects of the same type, just like the ArrayList.

The LinkedList class has all of the same methods as the ArrayList class because they both implement the List interface. This means that you can add items, change items, remove items and clear the list in the same way.

However, while the ArrayList class and the LinkedList class can be used in the same way, they are built very differently.

How the ArrayList works The ArrayList class has a regular array inside it. When an element is added, it is placed into the array. If the array is not big enough, a new, larger array is created to replace the old one and the old one is removed.

How the LinkedList works The LinkedList stores its items in "containers." The list has a link to the first container and each container has a link to the next container in the list. To add an element to the list, the element is placed into a new container and that container is linked to one of the other containers in the list.

When To Use Use an ArrayList for storing and accessing data, and LinkedList to manipulate data.

LinkedList Methods

Method	Description
addFirst()	Adds an item to the beginning of the list.
addLast()	Add an item to the end of the list
removeFirst()	Remove an item from the beginning of the list.
removeLast()	Remove an item from the end of the list
getFirst()	Get the item at the beginning of the list
getLast()	Get the item at the end of the list

                                            
                                                // Import the LinkedList class
                                                import java.util.LinkedList;
                                                
                                                public class Main {
                                                  public static void main(String[] args) {
                                                    LinkedList cars = new LinkedList();
                                                   
                                                  }
                                                }

Java HashMap

In the ArrayList chapter, you learned that Arrays store items as an ordered collection, and you have to access them with an index number (int type). A HashMap however, store items in "key/value" pairs, and you can access them by an index of another type (e.g. a String).

One object is used as a key (index) to another object (value). It can store different types: String keys and Integer values, or the same type, like: String keys and String values

                                            
                                                import java.util.HashMap; // import the HashMap class

HashMap<String, String> capitalCities = new HashMap<String, String>();

                                            
                                                capitalCities.put("England", "London");

                                            
                                                capitalCities.get("England");

                                              
                                                capitalCities.remove("England");

                                              
                                                capitalCities.clear();

                                              
                                                capitalCities.size();

                                              
                                                // Print keys
                                                for (String i : capitalCities.keySet()) {
                                                  System.out.println(i);
                                                }

Java HashSet

A HashSet is a collection of items where every item is unique, and it is found in the java.util package

                                            
                                                import java.util.HashSet; // Import the HashSet class

HashSet<String>  cars = new HashSet<String>();

                                                                                    
    cars.add("Volvo");

                                            
                                                cars.contains("Mazda");

                                              
                                                cars.remove("Volvo");

                                              
                                                capitalCities.clear();

                                              
                                                cars.size();

                                              
                                                for (String i : cars) {
                                                    System.out.println(i);
                                                  }

Java Iterator

An Iterator is an object that can be used to loop through collections, like ArrayList and HashSet. It is called an "iterator" because "iterating" is the technical term for looping.

To use an Iterator, you must import it from the java.util package.

Note: Trying to remove items using a for loop or a for-each loop would not work correctly because the collection is changing size at the same time that the code is trying to loop.

                                            
                                                import java.util.Iterator;
                                                // Get the iterator
    Iterator<String> it = cars.iterator();

    // Print the first item
    System.out.println(it.next());

                                            
                                                while(it.hasNext()) {
                                                   
                                                    
                                                  }

                                            
                                                while(it.hasNext()) {
                                                    Integer i = it.next();
                                                    if(i < 10) {
                                                      it.remove();
                                                    }
                                                  }

Java Wrapper Classes

Wrapper classes provide a way to use primitive data types (int, boolean, etc..) as objects.

The table below shows the primitive type and the equivalent wrapper class:

Primitive Data Type	Wrapper Class
byte	Byte
short	Short
int	Integer
long	Long
float	Float
double	Double
boolean	Boolean
char	Character

Java Exceptions

Java Exceptions

When executing Java code, different errors can occur: coding errors made by the programmer, errors due to wrong input, or other unforeseeable things.

When an error occurs, Java will normally stop and generate an error message. The technical term for this is: Java will throw an exception (throw an error).

Java try and catch
The try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested for errors while it is being executed.

The catch statement allows you to define a block of code to be executed, if an error occurs in the try block.

Finally
The finally statement lets you execute code, after try...catch, regardless of the result
```
                        
                            try {
                                //  Block of code to try
                              }
                              catch(Exception e) {
                                //  Block of code to handle errors
                              }finally {
                                // After 'try catch' is finished 
                              }
                        
                        
```
The throw keyword

The throw keyword

The throw statement allows you to create a custom error.

The throw statement is used together with an exception type. There are many exception types available in Java: ArithmeticException, FileNotFoundException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, SecurityException, etc
```
                    
                        throw new ArithmeticException("Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.");
                    
                    
```

Java Regular Expressions

A regular expression is a sequence of characters that forms a search pattern. When you search for data in a text, you can use this search pattern to describe what you are searching for.

A regular expression can be a single character, or a more complicated pattern.

Regular expressions can be used to perform all types of text search and text replace operations.

Java does not have a built-in Regular Expression class, but we can import the java.util.regex package to work with regular expressions. The package includes the following classes:

Pattern Class - Defines a pattern (to be used in a search)
Matcher Class - Used to search for the pattern
PatternSyntaxException Class - Indicates syntax error in a regular expression pattern

Flags
Flags in the compile() method change how the search is performed. Here are a few of them:

Pattern.CASE_INSENSITIVE - The case of letters will be ignored when performing a search.
Pattern.LITERAL - Special characters in the pattern will not have any special meaning and will be treated as ordinary characters when performing a search.
Pattern.UNICODE_CASE - Use it together with the CASE_INSENSITIVE flag to also ignore the case of letters outside of the English alphabet

Regular Expression Patterns
The first parameter of the Pattern.compile() method is the pattern. It describes what is being searched for.
Brackets are used to find a range of character

Expression	Description
[abc]	Find one character from the options between the brackets
[^abc]	Find one character NOT between the brackets
[0-9]	Find one character from the range 0 to 9

Metacharacters Metacharacters are characters with a special meaning:

Metacharacter	Description
\|	Find a match for any one of the patterns separated by \| as in: cat\|dog\|fish
.	Find just one instance of any character
^	Finds a match as the beginning of a string as in: ^Hello
$	Finds a match at the end of the string as in: World$
\d	Find a digit
\s	Find a whitespace character
\b	Find a match at the beginning of a word like this: \bWORD, or at the end of a word like this: WORD\b
\uxxxx	Find the Unicode character specified by the hexadecimal number xxxx

Quantifiers Quantifiers define quantities:

Quantifier	Description
n+	Matches any string that contains at least one n
n*	Matches any string that contains zero or more occurrences of n
n?	Matches any string that contains zero or one occurrences of n
n{x}	Matches any string that contains a sequence of X n's
n{x,y}	Matches any string that contains a sequence of X to Y n's
n{x,}	Matches any string that contains a sequence of at least X n's

                
                    import java.util.regex.Matcher;
import java.util.regex.Pattern;

public class Main {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Pattern pattern = Pattern.compile("w3schools", Pattern.CASE_INSENSITIVE);
    Matcher matcher = pattern.matcher("Visit W3Schools!");
    boolean matchFound = matcher.find();
    if(matchFound) {
      System.out.println("Match found");
    } else {
      System.out.println("Match not found");
    }
  }
}

Java Threads

Threads allows a program to operate more efficiently by doing multiple things at the same time.

Threads can be used to perform complicated tasks in the background without interrupting the main program.

created by extending the Thread class

            
                public class Main extends Thread {
                    public void run() {
                      System.out.println("This code is running in a thread");
                    }
                  }

create a thread is to implement the Runnable interface

                
                    public class Main implements Runnable {
                        public void run() {
                          System.out.println("This code is running in a thread");
                        }
                      }

Running Threads

                
                    Main thread = new Main();
                    thread.start();

Java Files

File handling is an important part of any application.

Java has several methods for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.

Java File Handling:
The File class from the java.io package, allows us to work with files.

To use the File class, create an object of the class, and specify the filename or directory name

The File class has many useful methods for creating and getting information about files. For example:

Method	Type	Description
`canRead()`	Boolean	Tests whether the file is readable or not
`canWrite()`	Boolean	Tests whether the file is writable or not
`createNewFile()`	Boolean	Creates an empty file
`delete()`	Boolean	Deletes a file
`exists()`	Boolean	Tests whether the file exists
`getName()`	String	Returns the name of the file
`getAbsolutePath()`	String	Returns the absolute pathname of the file
`length()`	Long	Returns the size of the file in bytes
`list()`	String[]	Returns an array of the files in the directory
`mkdir()`	Boolean	Creates a directory

                                
                                    import java.io.File;  // Import the File class

                                    File myObj = new File("filename.txt"); // Specify the filename

                                
                                    import java.io.File;  // Import the File class
                                    import java.io.IOException;  // Import the IOException class to handle errors
                                    
                                    public class CreateFile {
                                      public static void main(String[] args) {
                                        try {
                                          File myObj = new File("filename.txt");
                                          if (myObj.createNewFile()) {
                                            System.out.println("File created: " + myObj.getName());
                                          } else {
                                            System.out.println("File already exists.");
                                          }
                                        } catch (IOException e) {
                                          System.out.println("An error occurred.");
                                          e.printStackTrace();
                                        }
                                      }
                                    }

                                
                                    import java.io.FileWriter;   // Import the FileWriter class
                                    import java.io.IOException;  // Import the IOException class to handle errors
                                    
                                    public class WriteToFile {
                                      public static void main(String[] args) {
                                        try {
                                          FileWriter myWriter = new FileWriter("filename.txt");
                                          myWriter.write("Files in Java might be tricky, but it is fun enough!");
                                          myWriter.close();
                                          System.out.println("Successfully wrote to the file.");
                                        } catch (IOException e) {
                                          System.out.println("An error occurred.");
                                          e.printStackTrace();
                                        }
                                      }
                                    }

                                
                                    import java.io.File;  // Import the File class
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;  // Import this class to handle errors
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class to read text files

public class ReadFile {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    try {
      File myObj = new File("filename.txt");
      Scanner myReader = new Scanner(myObj);
      while (myReader.hasNextLine()) {
        String data = myReader.nextLine();
        System.out.println(data);
      }
      myReader.close();
    } catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
      System.out.println("An error occurred.");
      e.printStackTrace();
    }
  }
}

                                
                                    import java.io.File;  // Import the File class

                                    public class GetFileInfo { 
                                      public static void main(String[] args) {
                                        File myObj = new File("filename.txt");
                                        if (myObj.exists()) {
                                          System.out.println("File name: " + myObj.getName());
                                          System.out.println("Absolute path: " + myObj.getAbsolutePath());
                                          System.out.println("Writeable: " + myObj.canWrite());
                                          System.out.println("Readable " + myObj.canRead());
                                          System.out.println("File size in bytes " + myObj.length());
                                        } else {
                                          System.out.println("The file does not exist.");
                                        }
                                      }
                                    }

                                
                                    import java.io.File;  // Import the File class

                                    public class DeleteFile {
                                      public static void main(String[] args) { 
                                        File myObj = new File("filename.txt"); 
                                        if (myObj.delete()) { 
                                          System.out.println("Deleted the file: " + myObj.getName());
                                        } else {
                                          System.out.println("Failed to delete the file.");
                                        } 
                                      } 
                                    }

                                
                                    import java.io.File; 

                                    public class DeleteFolder {
                                      public static void main(String[] args) { 
                                        File myObj = new File("C:\\Users\\MyName\\Test"); 
                                        if (myObj.delete()) { 
                                          System.out.println("Deleted the folder: " + myObj.getName());
                                        } else {
                                          System.out.println("Failed to delete the folder.");
                                        } 
                                      } 
                                    }

Java Reserved Keywords

Keyword	Description
abstract	A non-access modifier. Used for classes and methods: An abstract class cannot be used to create objects (to access it, it must be inherited from another class). An abstract method can only be used in an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is provided by the subclass (inherited from)
assert	For debugging
boolean	A data type that can only store true and false values
break	Breaks out of a loop or a switch block
byte	A data type that can store whole numbers from -128 and 127
case	Marks a block of code in switch statements
catch	Catches exceptions generated by try statements
char	A data type that is used to store a single character
class	Defines a class
continue	Continues to the next iteration of a loop
const	Defines a constant. Not in use - use final instead
default	Specifies the default block of code in a switch statement
do	Used together with while to create a do-while loop
double	A data type that can store whole numbers from 1.7e−308 to 1.7e+308
else	Used in conditional statements
enum	Declares an enumerated (unchangeable) type
exports	Exports a package with a module. New in Java 9
extends	Extends a class (indicates that a class is inherited from another class)
final	A non-access modifier used for classes, attributes and methods, which makes them non-changeable (impossible to inherit or override)
finally	Used with exceptions, a block of code that will be executed no matter if there is an exception or not
float	A data type that can store whole numbers from 3.4e−038 to 3.4e+038
for	Create a for loop
goto	Not in use, and has no function
if	Makes a conditional statement
implements	Implements an interface
import	Used to import a package, class or interface
instanceof	Checks whether an object is an instance of a specific class or an interface
int	A data type that can store whole numbers from -2147483648 to 2147483647
interface	Used to declare a special type of class that only contains abstract methods
long	A data type that can store whole numbers from -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775808
module	Declares a module. New in Java 9
native	Specifies that a method is not implemented in the same Java source file (but in another language)
new	Creates new objects
package	Declares a package
private	An access modifier used for attributes, methods and constructors, making them only accessible within the declared class
protected	An access modifier used for attributes, methods and constructors, making them accessible in the same package and subclasses
public	An access modifier used for classes, attributes, methods and constructors, making them accessible by any other class
requires	Specifies required libraries inside a module. New in Java 9
return	Finished the execution of a method, and can be used to return a value from a method
short	A data type that can store whole numbers from -32768 to 32767
static	A non-access modifier used for methods and attributes. Static methods/attributes can be accessed without creating an object of a class
strictfp	Restrict the precision and rounding of floating point calculations
super	Refers to superclass (parent) objects
switch	Selects one of many code blocks to be executed
synchronized	A non-access modifier, which specifies that methods can only be accessed by one thread at a time
this	Refers to the current object in a method or constructor
throw	Creates a custom error
throws	Indicates what exceptions may be thrown by a method
transient	A non-accesss modifier, which specifies that an attribute is not part of an object's persistent state
try	Creates a try...catch statement
var	Declares a variable. New in Java 10
void	Specifies that a method should not have a return value
volatile	Indicates that an attribute is not cached thread-locally, and is always read from the "main memory"
while	Creates a while loop

Java String Methods

Method	Description	Return Type
charAt()	Returns the character at the specified index (position)	char
codePointAt()	Returns the Unicode of the character at the specified index	int
codePointBefore()	Returns the Unicode of the character before the specified index	int
codePointCount()	Returns the number of Unicode values found in a string.	int
compareTo()	Compares two strings lexicographically	int
compareToIgnoreCase()	Compares two strings lexicographically, ignoring case differences	int
concat()	Appends a string to the end of another string	String
contains()	Checks whether a string contains a sequence of characters	boolean
contentEquals()	Checks whether a string contains the exact same sequence of characters of the specified CharSequence or StringBuffer	boolean
copyValueOf()	Returns a String that represents the characters of the character array	String
endsWith()	Checks whether a string ends with the specified character(s)	boolean
equals()	Compares two strings. Returns true if the strings are equal, and false if not	boolean
equalsIgnoreCase()	Compares two strings, ignoring case considerations	boolean
format()	Returns a formatted string using the specified locale, format string, and arguments	String
getBytes()	Encodes this String into a sequence of bytes using the named charset, storing the result into a new byte array	byte[]
getChars()	Copies characters from a string to an array of chars	void
hashCode()	Returns the hash code of a string	int
indexOf()	Returns the position of the first found occurrence of specified characters in a string	int
intern()	Returns the canonical representation for the string object	String
isEmpty()	Checks whether a string is empty or not	boolean
lastIndexOf()	Returns the position of the last found occurrence of specified characters in a string	int
length()	Returns the length of a specified string	int
matches()	Searches a string for a match against a regular expression, and returns the matches	boolean
offsetByCodePoints()	Returns the index within this String that is offset from the given index by codePointOffset code points	int
regionMatches()	Tests if two string regions are equal	boolean
replace()	Searches a string for a specified value, and returns a new string where the specified values are replaced	String
replaceFirst()	Replaces the first occurrence of a substring that matches the given regular expression with the given replacement	String
replaceAll()	Replaces each substring of this string that matches the given regular expression with the given replacement	String
split()	Splits a string into an array of substrings	String[]
startsWith()	Checks whether a string starts with specified characters	boolean
subSequence()	Returns a new character sequence that is a subsequence of this sequence	CharSequence
substring()	Returns a new string which is the substring of a specified string	String
toCharArray()	Converts this string to a new character array	char[]
toLowerCase()	Converts a string to lower case letters	String
toString()	Returns the value of a String object	String
toUpperCase()	Converts a string to upper case letters	String
trim()	Removes whitespace from both ends of a string	String
valueOf()	Returns the string representation of the specified value	String

Java Math Methods

Method	Description	Return Type
abs(x)	Returns the absolute value of x	double\|float\|int\|long
acos(x)	Returns the arccosine of x, in radians	double
asin(x)	Returns the arcsine of x, in radians	double
atan(x)	Returns the arctangent of x as a numeric value between -PI/2 and PI/2 radians	double
atan2(y,x)	Returns the angle theta from the conversion of rectangular coordinates (x, y) to polar coordinates (r, theta).	double
cbrt(x)	Returns the cube root of x	double
ceil(x)	Returns the value of x rounded up to its nearest integer	double
copySign(x, y)	Returns the first floating point x with the sign of the second floating point y	double
cos(x)	Returns the cosine of x (x is in radians)	double
cosh(x)	Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a double value	double
exp(x)	Returns the value of E^x	double
expm1(x)	Returns e^x -1	double
floor(x)	Returns the value of x rounded down to its nearest integer	double
getExponent(x)	Returns the unbiased exponent used in x	int
hypot(x, y)	Returns sqrt(x² +y²) without intermediate overflow or underflow	double
IEEEremainder(x, y)	Computes the remainder operation on x and y as prescribed by the IEEE 754 standard	double
log(x)	Returns the natural logarithm (base E) of x	double
log10(x)	Returns the base 10 logarithm of x	double
log1p(x)	Returns the natural logarithm (base E) of the sum of x and 1	double
max(x, y)	Returns the number with the highest value	double\|float\|int\|long
min(x, y)	Returns the number with the lowest value	double\|float\|int\|long
nextAfter(x, y)	Returns the floating point number adjacent to x in the direction of y	double\|float
nextUp(x)	Returns the floating point value adjacent to x in the direction of positive infinity	double\|float
pow(x, y)	Returns the value of x to the power of y	double
random()	Returns a random number between 0 and 1	double
round(x)	Returns the value of x rounded to its nearest integer	int
rint(x)	Returns the double value that is closest to x and equal to a mathematical integer	double
signum(x)	Returns the sign of x	double
sin(x)	Returns the sine of x (x is in radians)	double
sinh(x)	Returns the hyperbolic sine of a double value	double
sqrt(x)	Returns the square root of x	double
tan(x)	Returns the tangent of an angle	double
tanh(x)	Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a double value	double
toDegrees(x)	Converts an angle measured in radians to an approx. equivalent angle measured in degrees	double
toRadians(x)	Converts an angle measured in degrees to an approx. angle measured in radians	double
ulp(x)	Returns the size of the unit of least precision (ulp) of x	double\|float

JavaScript

Java

Java Syntax

Print Text

Print()

Println()

Java Comments

single linecomment

Multi-Line comments

Java Variables

Declaring (Creating) Variables (Syntax)

Final Variables

Identifiers

Java Data Types

Premitive number type : Integer type

byte

short

int

long

Premitive number type : Floating Point Types

float

double

Boolean Types

Characters

Strings

Java Type Casting

Widening Casting

Narrowing Casting

Java Operators

Java Strings

String declare

String Length

Finding a Character in a String

String Concatenation

String Concatenation using +

String Concatenation using .concat()

Java Special Characters

Math.max(x,y)

Math.min(x,y)

Math.sqrt(x)

Math.abs(x)

Random Numbers

Java Conditions and If Statements

If Statement

If .... else

If ... else if ... else

Short Hand If...Else

Switch statement

Loops

Java While Loop

Do/While Loop

Java For Loop

For-Each Loop

Java Break

Java Continue

Java Arrays

Multidimensional Arrays

Java Methods

Parameters and Arguments

Java Scope

Java Recursion

Halting Condition

Java OOP

Java Classes/Objects

Create a Class

Create a object

Static vs. Public

Static method

Public method

Main method

Java Constructors

Java Modifiers

Final

Static

Abstract

Encapsulation

Java Packages & API

User-defined Packages

Java Inheritance

Java Polymorphism